There are several metabolic pathways which include, ATP-PC storage, anaerobic, and glycolytic pathways.
ATP is the currency of energy exchange in the body.Every metabolic pathway must find a way to regenerate and use more ATP in order to continue exercise.ATP stores in the body last only a few seconds.From there it is regenerated by ATP-PC system till phospocreatine reserves run out.This ATP-PC system lasts about 8-10 seconds.
Movements involving ATP storage include quick, power or strength movements, such as swinging a golf club, baseball bat, or power lift.To improve this system, the body must stress this system in the same way that it will respond during performance times.This means that a power lifter should work on power lifts similar to those movements done in competition.
ATP-PC system involves sustained power movements for duration usually less than 10 seconds.
This includes most football plays, 100m sprinting, and long jumping.Clinicians should train individuals in similar ATP-PC stressful situations in order to elicit gains on this biochemical pathway.Speed drills and plyometrics are good for increasing spring times, jump height, jump distance, balance, and agility.
Lactic cycle is a means of anaerobic or glycolyitic function.It is primarily involved in anaerobic power and endurance such as the 400m sprint, swim sprints from 30-90seconds.
Aerobic metabolism needs oxygen to regenerate ATP. This pathway allows for the longest duration of exercise, usually from 1-5minutes up past 90 minutes. Exercise Intensity is inversely proportional to exercise length. As intensity increases, length of exercise must decrease.
The following is a list of proven exercise principles that should be incorporated into any workout program to achieve the most significant gains regarding training. These principles can be included in both anaerobic and aerobic exercise programs and increases will correlate to the proper application of each principle.
Principle of Individuality is the principle that all subjects are different in means of metabolism, cell growth rate, neural/endocrine regulations, and other biochemical differences. Heredity is a significant factor involved in this principle. Other factors include medications, age, and disease condition. Individuals are either categorized as responders or non-responders.
Principle of specificity is the principle that states that adaptations are specific to type of activity, volume, and intensity of exercise. This principle shows that direct stress to specific physiological systems is critical for optimal performance in activities where the same muscle groups and metabolic pathways are stressed. The body will respond to the specific metabolic pathway being stressed. For one to meet goals, the proper metabolic pathway must be stressed. The Principle of Specificity is the most significant training principle.
Principle of Use vs Disuse states that exercise benefit gains made during an exercise program are rapidly lost when that specific physiological stress is eliminated. If an individual has rapid gains in exercise and stops training, those gains will be lost just as quickly. This period of time is generally 1-2 weeks depending on exercise mode, intensity, and duration. This is sometimes referred to as the use it or lose it principle.
Principle of Overload –involves stressing physiological systems more normal states will elicit health gains according to the overload volume. See FIT principle.
Principle of Periodization – involves as easy and hard cycles. This can refer to cycles as long as 4 years or as short as a week. There might also be microcycles in 1 or more macrocycles. Smaller cycles allow the body and mind to actively recover. Longer cycles stress periods of maintenance so exercise gains are not long, but volume and intensity of training is lowered. This allows for mental recovery and increased motivation at the proper time. Some clinicians refer to this principle as the ability to reach optimal peak efforts both physically and mentally in accordance to major athletic events.
FIT principle – refers to Frequency, Intensity, and Time of exercise. This is collectively called volume of training. Optimal levels can be reached and detrimental performance is possible if volume of training is too great. Intensity and time are indirectly proportional. That is to say, as intensity of an exercise increases the duration one can perform that exercise decreases.
Proper Mode of Exercise Principle – training exercises need to mimic performance exercise in order to get the greatest benefit from an exercise method. This is specific to muscle groups, movements, and physiological pathways. Trainers should work on anaerobic power exercises for individuals where anaerobic power is a key to success as well as for aerobic exercises and goals.
Both anaerobic and aerobic exercise training can prove to have significant increases to overall health. Training results usually mimic the training meaning that lifting weights will produce larger muscles. Running long distances will improve cardiovascular function. Both forms of exercise can be used as a means to improve body composition by lowering body fat % content. The level of body fat % can be tested in various ways and is a significant reflection of overall health.
Body composition, or what the body is made of, can be used as an important evaluation of health/risk factors, and performance.Techniques for measuring body composition range from, easy estimates to in-depth chemical analysis.Composition measurements are most commonly used to assess the ratio of fat to fat-free tissue in the body.Based on an individual’s height, gender, age, body-type, there is a proper body composition range that is used to assess and monitor health. Improvements in body composition and lowering body fat % may helped by utilizing anaerobic and aerobic training principles for exercise.
Obesity in American people is often used as a risk factor to determine and individual’s health.Opposed to this are problems dealing with low fat composition such as eating disorders and other problems in women athletes, such as ammenoria (loss of menstrual cycle) and osteoporosis (bone weakening).
The ratio of fat to fat-free mass can be used as a measurement of an athlete’s progression or to gauge overall health.Fat is essential in both dietary and internal body forms. Fat helps to cushion organs, line nervous tissue, provide energy, and compose cell walls. Too much or little body fat in an individual often leads to poor health.
Various means of measuring, predicting, and monitoring body composition range from simple to complex.
Anthropometrics are the “measure of size and proportions of the human body.”This includes the following:
1.)BMI- body mass index.This is a ratio of the relationship of an individual’s height to mass.It can be calculated by taking the mass(kg) divided by the height(m) squared.BMI =mass(kg)/ht(m2).It is used as a measurement for disease risk but does not take into account fat:fat-free mass.Fat distribution, more importantly, body fat % is not used as a factor.
A good indicator of relative disease risk for large groups might be BMI separate or combined with normal waist circumference measures.Individuals can assess themselves among various classifications of gender, age, and range of BMI and waist circumference.This is a general outline but it can be used to help a large group of people to identify potential problems and risks.
2.)WHR: waist-to-hip ratio.This is a simple ratio of waste circumference over hip circumference.Based on gender, this cursory measurement can show how a person’s fat is distributed about their body(apple vs. pear shape)
3.)Skin-fold measurement.Various parts on the body collect more subcutaneous fat than other areas.Measuring the folds of skin/fat over the muscle in this area can be used to predict body fat composition and therefore body fat%.Using calipers, a health care professional would measure the amount of thickness of a particular skin fold.Additional sites are then used in conjunction to estimate body fat% using regression equations.
Skinfold testing depends on the user and properly calibrated calipers.This process could entail a higher degree of user error and takes a lot of practice for clinicians to become adept in this measurement.The tediousness of measuring 7 spots repeatedly may cause clinicians to lose accuracy.The procedure is also more technical and requires specifics on where/how to pinch/measure in regards to location, orientation, and direction.
Not measuring proper locations, repeating in correct order, or using the right procedure will cause errors in measure.Marking areas could help eliminate inconsistent error.Other sources include not rotating measurements properly, measuring superior to pinch, pinching in wrong direction, and measuring on left side of body.
7-site measurements should be more accurate than 3-site measurement.However because of the reasons previously mentioned, the 7-site measurement might have increased error ranges.With time, patience, experience, the 7-site measurement should be more accurate than the 3-site measurement.This also depends on the genetics and body composition of the subject being tested.
Some areas have more visceral fat accumulation compared to others even within gender.Caliper testing could, over time with the same clinician, become more accurate than the average BIA done on a bathroom scale (especially in individuals of extremely lean/obese).This again will reflect the BI system in question as well as the quality of skinfold test being administered.
This process of measuring the weight of an individual when fully submerged.It can be used to calculate body density and estimate body fat%.It is traditionally considered the most accurate prediction of body composition done and is based on complex chemical analysis that can only be completed in post-mortem studies.
The process is based on the Archimedes principle and relative difference between fat:fat-free mass when submerged in water.Archimedes principle states that object submerged in water will be buoyed with a force equal to the weight of water displaced.Human’s weight in water is a proportion of fat mass to fat free mass because of the density properties involved.
Muscle density is 1.10 g/ml, Fat density is 0.90 g/ml, and H2O at 4ยบ C is 1.0g/ml.Because fat is less dense than water, the body will be pushed up by this buoyant force and will weigh less than an individual of equal dry-land mass(that has a larger ratio of fat-free mass to fat mass).
Therefore, the loss is body mass submerged in water is proportional to fat mass of individual.
Factors of hydrostatic weighing include temperature of H2O (changing density of water with temp), residual lung volume, and GI volume.Gas volumes remain constant in the lungs to prevent collapsing and ensure further respiration.Gas in the GI tract is a byproduct of basic metabolic functions (digestion).
Since hydrostatic is the “gold standard” and considered the most accurate estimate of the tests for body fat % measured, the other tests are be measured against this. Hydrostatic remains the most accurate/constant because it eliminates user error.Dry mass remains relatively constant from measures, even from day to day when standardized.Underwater weight remains relatively constant over many trials when done accurately.Changes in hydration (bodily fluid levels) are minimized because of its closeness to the density of water measured in; water wt in body equal buoyant force so it is negligible).
Other errors that could be accounted for in hydrostatic weighing is wearing jewelry, water bubbles on body or in swimwear, touching tank enclosure with body part, not fully expiring or completely submerging by subject.Measuring errors could be accounted by improper reading of scale or not taking enough quality measurements.
BIA uses the basis that different substrates have different conductive properties. Current passed through the body will resist/conduct electricity based on specific resistance properties.Fat free mass contains electrolyte rich liquid which is a good conductor of current.Fat dense mass will resist the current based on its substrate properties.BIA measures this current difference to calculate body density and estimate body fat percentage.
Because of the ever-changing volume of liquid (Loss of electrolytes through bleeding, perspiration, urination, defecation), and other biochemical process in the body, BIA is somewhat less accurate than skinfold testing and hydrostatic weighing.
Various regression Equations will be used from measured values to estimate body compositions and % Fat.These equations are based on chemical analysis of cadavers and were given in the lab handouts.
Factors that can manipulate BIA include hydration %.This includes: times since last drink/meal, urination, perspiration ect.Fluid levels can fluctuate because of this change.Sometimes there is also a tendency for lean individuals to get a higher BF% reading and obese individuals to get a low BF% reading.Good BIA systems might cost more money than a poor unit which could tend to decrease the accuracy.Just because the % value is closer, in this case to hydrostatic value, does not mean that BIA is more accurate than the calipers.
BIA might have a low body fat reading in an obese individual.Calipers might not fit the individual that is morbidly obese.This large individual would probably be self conscious of water testing as well as float freely even with weight belts in hydrostatic tank.The person also might not fit in its close quarters.Regression equations do not work for girth measurements in individuals that are overly fat.DEXA requires a prescription in many states and might be expensive.BOD PODs might be too small and also expensive.
However, other basic anthropomorphic measures can be used, such as circumference measuring, BMI, ht/wt ratios, to assess predict what body fat % may be.The person needs to lose weight and can be monitored by this process till they are at a more manageable weight and able to use one of the other measurable means.If one of these lab procedures must be used, I would suggest BIA.It would be the least invasive and simplest for the subject.He/she would have to be made aware that it could be inaccurate and estimate a body fat too low.
Circumference measurements use regression equations to estimate body fat.Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) is based on x-ray absorption of body substrates.BOD POD or body plethysmography works on the theory similar to hydrostatic weighing.However, the body displaces air in this tank instead of water.
